The key facts

  • In 480 BC, Themistocles lured the Persian fleet of Xerxes I into the narrow straits near Salamis, where the Greek fleet won a decisive victory.
  • In 424 BC, Brasidas persuaded the residents of Amphipolis to switch to Sparta's side without an assault or destruction; he died in 422 BC.
  • Philip II, who ascended the throne in 359 BC, turned Macedonia into a powerful state by reforming the army.

Themistocles: Turned the Enemy's Superiority into a Weakness

In 480 BC, the Persian king Xerxes I invaded Greece. The Persians won the Battle of Thermopylae, continued their advance southward, and captured and plundered Athens. The Athenian commander and statesman Themistocles understood the danger of fighting in conditions favorable to the enemy. According to the historian Herodotus, he sent Xerxes a secret message saying that the Greeks were preparing to retreat. Xerxes sent his fleet into the narrow straits near the island of Salamis to intercept the path of the Greek ships. This was exactly what Themistocles had been waiting for: in the narrow space, the numerous Persian ships could not maneuver freely and got in each other's way. The Greek fleet won a decisive victory. After the defeat at sea, Xerxes, realizing that supplying the land army would become difficult, led most of his forces away. The remaining Persian troops were defeated the following year at the Battle of Plataea.

Brasidas: Capturing a City Without Destruction

In the Peloponnesian War, which began in 431 BC, Athens and Sparta clashed. Sparta was strong on land, while the Athenian fleet allowed it to maintain supply by sea and send troops in various directions. The Spartan commander Brasidas tried to strike at Athens' sources of supply: in 424 BC he led his army north, to Thrace. One of his most important successes was bringing the city of Amphipolis out from under Athenian influence. Instead of an assault, Brasidas offered the residents favorable terms and persuaded them to switch to Sparta's side — thus the goal was achieved without a lengthy siege and major destruction. Athens tried to retake the strategically important city: in the battle of 422 BC Brasidas was killed, yet the Athenians failed to restore control over Amphipolis.

Philip II: Left Alexander a Mighty Army

Philip II, who ascended the throne in 359 BC, turned Macedonia into a powerful state. His most important reforms concerned the army. At this point the text of the article in the source breaks off; there is no information about the fourth commander mentioned in the headline in the available portion of the publication.